Biochemical role of calcium-

Calcium is the principle mineral and is an essential constituent of the cell and has following function in the body-
1) Calcium along with phosphorous is essential for the formation of the developments of bones and teeths.
2) Ionized calcium is required in blood coagulation process
3) It regulates the excitability of nerve fibers and nerve centers.
4) It is essential for nerve impulse and muscular contraction and regulates the permeability of membrances.
5) It is required for maintaing the integrity of intracellular material.
6) It is required for activation of several enzymes such as succinate dehydrogenase, ATPase and certain proteolytic enzymes.

Trace Elements-

These elements are present in living tissue in small amount. They are subdivided into three groups-
a) Eseential trace elements
b) Possibly Eseential trace elements
c) Non Eseential trace elements

Principal Element-

These includes calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, phosphorous, sulphur and chlorine.
Out of these, Na, K and Cl2 are involved mainly in the maintainance of acid base balance and osmotic control of water metabolism; Ca, P, Mg are the constituents of bones and teeth; phosphorous is a constituent of body cells of soft tissue, such as muscles, liver etc. sulphur in cysteine and methionine, thiamine, biotin and CoA.

Mineral Metabolim-

Mineral elements present in the body are supplied by the diet and are of two types-
· principal elements
· trace elements

Effects of dehydration-

1) Loss of weight due to the reduction in tissue water.
2) Disturbance in acid-base balance
3) Rise in nonprotein nitrogen of blood
4) Increased pulse rate and reduced cardiac output
5) Dryness, wrinklink and looseness of skin
6) Rise in body temperature due to reduction in circulating fluid.
7) Exhaustion and Collapse.

Dehydration due to injection of hypertonic solution-

When a highly concentrated sugar or salt solution is injected into the body, the osmotic pressure of blood increases. This result in the flow of fluid from the tissue into the blood until equilibrium sets in, consequently the blood volume increases. This increase blood volume soon returns the normal by to loss of excess material through excretion. This causes the net loss of body water producing dehydration.

Secondry dehydration-

The concentration of the elocrolytes of the body fluids are maintained constant through the elimination or reduction of water. The reduction or increase in the total electrolyte, which affects chiefly the basic radicals and is accompanied by a corresponding increase or decrease in the volume of body water. This causes intracellular edema. There is slowing of circulation and impairement of urinal function. The individual becomes weaker.

Primary dehydration-

a) Simple deprivation of water from desrt travel, extreme weakness and mental patients refusing to drink causes dehydration. It occurs more quickly in fever or in high temperature of the environment.
b) Excessive water loss due to vomiting, prolonged diarrhea, excretion of large quantity of urine or sweat.
In water depletion, the concentration of extracellular fluid increases. Water is drawn from the cells and both the extracellular and intracellular compartment shrinks. Extreme thirst result, the individual complains of hot and dry body, dry tongue.

What is dehydration-

When the lossess of water exceeds the intake of water, the body’s water content is reduced, that is, the body is in enegative water balance and this condition is known as Dehydration.

Properties of water-

1) Water is an extremely polar, hence is a good solevent.
2) It is a good insulator, hence controls the heat loss from the body.
3) Water has a very high dielectric constant.
4) Water shows hydrogen bonding with each other and variety of molecules such as protein, sugars, ions,etc.

Water is lost from body by the following routes-

1) Urine
2) Faeces
3) Perspiration
4) Evaporation from skin and lung

Water is supplied by body at following process-

1) Dietary liquid
2) Solid food
3) Oxidation of food stuff

Water balance-

Water is most common and abundant compound of all living system. An equilibrium is maintained between the intake and the loss of water from body. The regulatory mechanism of body water is influenced in addition to other factor by certain hormones, such as ADH oxytocin and aldosterone.

Heat regulation-

By virtue of its high specific heat, water prevents any significant rise in the body temperature due to heat liberated from body reaction. The loss of heat from the body is also regulated by the evaporation of water from skin and lungs and its removal in urine

Vitamin H-

Vitamin H is isolated from milk and named as Biotin. The carbonyl group of biotin combines with the terminal nitrogen of lysine residue of enzyme protein forming biocytin.
Biotin is concerned with carboxylation reaction. The biotin coenzymes apoenzyme complex attaches CO2 which is afterward transferred to other substances.

Co-enzymic activities of vitamin B6-

It is involved in the process of absorption of amino acids from intestine and in the desulphuration of cystein and homocysteine. It is required for the synthesis of amino levalinic acid which is an important intermediate in the synthesis of porphyrin and hemo nuclei.
It is also especially applied to brain metabolism because it is necessary for the formation of serotonin, amino butyric acid and the catecholamine. It is also concerned with immune response.

Biological function of pyridoxine-

Pyridoxine is essential for the growth of infants. Pyridoxine phosphate acts as coenzyme in transmination and decarboxylation af amino acids, interconversion of glycine and serine and transulfuration in methionine metabolism. Pyridoxine phosphate is required in the transport of amino acid and some metallic ions across the cell membrane. It is involved in the synthesis of co-enzyme-A from pantothenic acid is also concerned with immune response.

Co-enzyme-

Many enzymes catalysed the reaction of their substrate only in the presence of a specific organic molecule called co-enzyme.
Co-enzyme frequently, B-vitamins as a part of their structure. Coenzymes are dialyzable organic compounds which are non covalently bound to enzyme protein and are responsible for the catalytic activity of several enzymes. Co-enzymes are generally derived from the water soluble vitamins and carry out ransfer of hydrogen or any other group of substarate in an enzimic reaction.

Folic acid-

Folic acid acts as a coenzyme for transfer and utilization of formate C1 fragment in the form of tetrahydrofolic acid. It is used in the treatment of macrocytic anaemia. It takes part in purine nucleotide synthesis and thymidylate synthesis. Folic acid consist of pteridine nucleus, P aminobenzoic acid and glutamic acid.

Biochemical role of vitamin B12-

1) Vitamin B12 along with folic acid is essential for the development of red blood cells beyond megaloblast stage.
2) It acts a coenzyme in the conversion of methyl malonyl CoA to succinyl CoA.
3) It is required in the conversion of ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucletides.
4) Its coenzyme acts in transfer of methyl group.

Important of vitamin B12 for metabolism-

Pernicious anemia or Macrocytic anemia is a deficiency symptoms of vit. B12. This is associated with lesions of the CNS described as subacute combined degeneration, due to the interference with the normal synthesis of nucleic acids, particularly DNA.
Chemistry- The structure of vitamin B12 consists of
1) Tetrapyrrole ring system-corrin
2) Cobalt occupying central place in the rig
3) Cynide is attached to cobalt
4) A nucleotide and
5) 6- methy benzinamidazole riboside which is attached at the one end to cobalt and at the other end to a side chain in ring IV through phosphate.

Deficiency symptoms

The deficiency of vitamin B1 produces a condition on called as “Beri-Beri”. The deficiency symptoms include anorexia, loss of weight, muscle cramp and general muscular weakness. The Beri -Beri has essentially two components i) cardio-vascular failure leading to enlargement of heart and edema and ii) neutral components viz. Peripheral neurisis. A deficiency in pigeons produces a disease characterized by loss of appetite, paralysis and heart retraction.

Biological function of thiamine-

Thiamine is awater soluble B group vitamin. The molecule cantains a hydrochloride is a commonly used salt. The molecule contains a Pyrimidine ring and a thiazole ring linked by a methylene group. The nitrogen of two thiazoles ring is cationic and associated with chloride ion. The crystalline hydrochloride is a salt formed with weakly a bacisamino group. Thiamine hydrochloride occurs as a colourless crystal r white or almost white crystalline powder with a characteristic meat like odour and bitter taste. It is freely soluble in water. It is incompatible with oxidizing and reducing substance, mercuric chlorides, iodides, carbonates and ferric sulphate.

Physiological function of vitamin C-

1) It is involved in oxidation-reduction of the cell. It is a donor of reducing equivalents in certain key reaction.
2) It is involved in the conversion of folic acid to the active form, tetrahydrofolic derivative.
3) It is involved in tyrosine metabolism i.e. oxidation of p-hydroxyphenyl pyruvate to homogentisate.
4) It is used in absorption of iron by converting the inorganic ferric iron to the ferrous form.
5) It is essential for the activity of fibroblasts, osteoblasts and odonoblasts. It causes hydroxylation of proline in collagen synthesis.

Biological function of vitamin ‘C’-

Chemistry-
Vitamin c is also known as antiscorbutic vitamin. It is found in all living plant cells, it is an endiolaction, which is readily oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid. It is, therefore a good reducing agent. Both oxidized and reduced fiorms of vitamin are biologically active. It occurs as a white crystalline powder with faint yellowish tint. It is freely soluble in water.

Deficiency manifestation of vitamin ‘k’

Vitamin ‘k’ defines generally occurs due to its defective absorption from intestine or due to the inhibition of intestinal bacteria as happens in antibiotic and sulphonamic therapy. Following are the important deficiency manifestation.
1) Hypoprothrombinemia in which the blood clotting time is prolonged.
2) Uncontrolled haemorrhages.

Biochemical role of vitamin ‘K’

Compound having vitamin k activity are naphthoquinone, chemically it is a phytomenadione. The two naturally occurring vitamin k are vitamin K1 and vitamin K2.
Biochemical function-
1) It reduces the prothrombin time.It is associated with the electron-transport chain and oxidation phosphorylation

Biochemical functions of vitamin ‘E’

1) It protects Vitamin A and carotenes from destruction by oxidation in the body.
2) It prevents the formation of peroxides by polyunsaturated fatty acids and also the pigmentation of adipose tissue.
3) It protects enzymes in muscle, nerve or gonads from destruction
4) It prevents the hepatic necrosis produced by the lake of sulfur caintaining amino acids in dietary proteins.
5) It prenvents the development of encephalomalacia and exudative diathesis in chicks.

Biochemical functions of vitamin ‘D’

1) vitamin D increases the absorption of calcium and phosphorous from the intestine and maintain their regulated supply to body fluids.
2) It increases the calcification of bones in body adults and growing childrens.
3) It increases the excretion of phosphate by kidney and lowers the serum phosphate concentration.
4) It increases the citrate level of blood, bone, kidney and heart tissue as well as the excreation of citric acid.
5) It decreases th PH in the lower intentinal tract which helps in increasing the absorption of calcium and phosphorous.

Vitamin D-

Deficiency of vitamin D results into “ Rickets” which is characterized by lack of calcification of hypertrophic cartilage zone and thus the bones are affected. Vitamin D plays an important role in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from intestinal tract. In ricketier persons the phosphate blood serum level is high which is brought down to a normal value by this vitamin. Vitamin D is used in rickets and for the management of hypocalcemia. In fully grown bones in adults there is a tyupe of deective mineralization of ostoid tissue termed as Osteomalacia

Unsaturated test-

Add 10 drops of Huble’s Iodine reagent to 10ml of chloroform. Chloroform assumes a pink color due to the free iodine. The solution is divided equally into the test tubes.
Add the oil number 1 to the test tube by drop shaking the tube vigorously after each addition till the pink colour of the solution just disapper. The number of oil drops required are noted. The experiment is repeated by oil 2 and 3 adding to test tubes. The more number of drops required to discharge the pink colour, the less is the unsaturation.

Properties of fatty acids-

The essential fatty acids of vegetables oils have low melting point and Iodine number. Theyu become saturated fatty acids on hydrogenation and oils become solid fats.
Functions-
1) The essential fatty acid in high concentration along with the lipids constitutes the structural elements of tissue.
2) Lipids of gonads also contain aa high concentration of poly-unsaturated fatty acis which suggest the importance of reproductive function.
3) They affect the prolongation of clotting time and increase the fibrinilytic activity.
4) They retard atherosclerisis being esterified and emulsified with cholesterol and are incorporated into lipo-proteins for transport of liver for further oxidation.
5) They cure skin lessons.
6) They deficiencies of these acids in the diet of babies causes eczema.

Essentials of fatty acids-

The saturated fatty acids, which are not synthesized in the body and required for the growth and health, are called fatty acids. They are supplied for the diet. These are-
1) Linoleic acid
2) Linolenic acid
3) Arachidinic acid
The essential fatty acids in the high concentration along with structural elements of tissue lipid of gonads. It also contain high concentration of poly-unsaturated fatty acids, which suggest the importance of reproductive function. They affect the prolongation of clotting time and increase the fibrinolytic activity. They cure the skin lesions.

Fatty acids-

Fatty acids are the derived lipids and are obtained by the hydrolysis of fats and other lipids. Naturally occurring fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atom because they are synthesized from 2 carbon units and are strainght cahin derivatives. The straight chain may be saturated or unsaturated and depending on this, fatty acids may be 1)saturated fatty acids 2) unsaturated fatty acids.
1) Saturated fatty acids- Straight chain saturated hydrocarbon belonging to acetic acid series, and have the general formula.
2) Unsaturated fatty acids- Fatty acids which have one or more double bonds in their molecules are called unsaturated fatty acids.

Lipoproteins

These are the compound lipids found in plasma and cell membrane. The lipid constituents of lipoproteins are mostly esterified cholesterol and phosholipids. The most important role of lipoproteins in the body is to transport and deliver the lipids to tissue and to maintain the structural integrity of cell surface and subcellular particles like mitochondria and microsomes. The four major groups have been identified
a) Chylomicrons
b) Very Low Density Lipoproteins
c) Low Density Lipoproteins
d) High Density Lipoproteins

Difference between fats, waxes and oils

Fats,oil and waxes belong to a group of naturally occurring compound called as Lipids. Waxes are lipids, which on hydrolysis yield a long chain fatty acid and a long chain monohydric alcohol. The waxes differ from fats in that they are not esters of glycerol but rather they are esters of numbered monohydric primary alcohol. Each wax cahin even therefore contains only a single ester group as against three in fats. Fats and oils are lipids, which on hydrolysis yield a long chain fatty acids and glycerol. Fats and oils are differ from each other in the degree of unsaturation of the constituent fatty acids. When degree of unsaturation is more, the compounds tends to be in lipid state and is reffered to as oil, while those with low degree of unsaturation are solids and are reffered to as fats. How Lipids are degested in the body- Lipids are digested mainly in the amall intenstine Lipase present in the stomach is unable to hydrolyze fat owing to the high acidity of gastric content. Therefore, major part of the ingested fat is digested in the small intestine. The ingested fat reaching the duodenum is mixed with the bile and pancreatic juice, which contain lipase. The bile salts emulsify that before the action of lipase. The emulsification is also brought about by monoglycerides, phosphlipids and lysolecithin. The pancreatic juice also contains phosholipase and cholesterol esterase, which phosholipids and esterified cholesterol. In this way lipids are digested in the body.

Glycolipids-

Glycolipids are the compound lipids containing an amino alcohol attached with an amide linkage to a fatty acid and glycosidically to a carbohydrate moiety. They are of two types- a) Cerbrocides b) Gangliosides Lipoproteins- These are the compound lipids found in plasma and cell membrane. The lipid constituents of lipoproteins are mostly esterified cholesterol and phosholipids. The most important role of lipoproteins in the body is to transport and deliver the lipids to tissue and to maintain the structural integrity of cell surface and subcellular particles like mitochondria and microsomes. The four major groups have been identified

a) Chylomicrons

b) Very Low Density Lipoproteins

c) Low Density Lipoproteins

d) High Density Lipoproteins

Phospholipids-

Phosholipids are the compound lipids and are esters of fatty acids withglycerol containing an esterified phosphoric acid and nitrogen base. They are present in large amounts in nerve tissue, brain, liver, kidney, pancreas and heart.
Biological function-
1) They increases the rate of fatty acid acid oxidation
2) They act as a carrier of inorganic ions across the membrane.
3) They help blood clotting.
4) They act as prosthetic group to cartain enzyme.
5) They form the structures of membrane, matrix of cell wall, mycelin sheath, microsomes and mitochondria.

Phospholipids-

Phosholipids are the compound lipids and are esters of fatty acids withglycerol containing an esterified phosphoric acid and nitrogen base. They are present in large amounts in nerve tissue, brain, liver, kidney, pancreas and heart.
Biological function-
1) They increases the rate of fatty acid acid oxidation
2) They act as a carrier of inorganic ions across the membrane.
3) They help blood clotting.
4) They act as prosthetic group to cartain enzyme.
5) They form the structures of membrane, matrix of cell wall, mycelin sheath, microsomes and mitochondria.

Acid number of fats-

Naturally occurring oils and fats are the esters of higher fatty acids with the trihydric alcohol glycerol and are enormously found in nature.
Chemically, fats are identical with oils in all respect except that the fats are solid at room temperature whereas oils are liquid.
Fat is the reserve food material in human body. It acts as insulator for the loss of body heat and also serves as a padding material for protecting internal organs.
Physical properties of fats-
Fats are insolublein water and soluble in organic solvent such as ether, chloroform, benzene. Melting point is low and pure fats have no colour, odour or taste. The specific gravity of solid fat is about 0.86.
Chemical properties-
1)Hydrolysis-
Hydrolysis of fats takes place by lipase producing fatty acids and glycerol. Phosholipase attack the ester linkages of phosholipids.
2) Saponification-
Hydrolysis of fatby alkali is called saponification. The products are glycerol and the alkali salts of fatty acids which are called soaps.
3)Halogenation-
Fats react with halogens to give addition product.
4)Rancidity-
Nearly all natural fats are oxidized when expose to air, light, moisture, particularly if warm, developing an unpleasant odour and taste. This happens due to the formation of peroxides at the double bond of unsaturated fatty acids. Vitamin E is an important natural antioxidant.

Triglycerides

Triglycerides are the ester of fatty acids with glycerol. They are the best reserve food material in the human body. They act as insulator for the loss of body heat. The chemical structure of triglycerides consist of three different molecules of fatty acids with one molecule of glycerol. They are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents such as ether, chloroform, benzene. Their meltin points are low. Triglycerides on hydrolysis give three molecules of fatty acids and glycerol.

LIPID-

Lipids are the heterogeneous group of organic compounds related to fatty acids which are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents like ether, chloroform and benzene. It occurs widelyin plant and animal kingdom,eg. Oils, fats, waxes. Lipids are important dietary constituents on account of high caoric value.
IMPORTANT BIOLOGICAL FUNCTION-
1) In the body, fat serves as an efficient source of energy when stored in adipose tissue.
2) Lipid serves as an insulating material in the subcutaneous tissue and around certain organ.
3) Lipids provide essential fatty acids, which are not synthesized by human body.
4) Lipids are the carriers of fat-soluble vitamin.
5) Lipids are used to form substances essential for maintaining cellular integrity such as lipoproteins and glycolipids, in combination with proteins and carbohydrates respectively.
6) It provides building blocks for different high molecular weight substance.
7) They produce metabolites through oxidation in the tissues, which are used in the interconversion of substances.

What is Metabolism-

Metabolism is a process in which biochemical changes occur in body , facilitating the exchange of matter and energy between cell or organism and its environment. It primarily consist of two opposite processes viz. anabolism & catabolism.
Importance of Metabolism-
Chemical energy is obtained from the fuel molecules or from food material in the form of ATP by metabolism of carbohydrates fats and proteins. The dietary nutrients are utilized as a building block for synthesis of new molecules eg. Carbohydrates are catabolised in the body for the production of energy for normal activity of body. Fat metabolism results in the synthesis of cell membrane to some extent. Protein metabolism result in the production of energy.
Cholesterol and disease related to cholesterol-
Cholesterol is the most abundantly found lipid in human body. Large amount of cholesterol are found in brain and nervous tissue. Since it is not synthesized in plants directly ; cholesterol is obtained only from animal sources like meat, brain liver and egg yolk. Chlosterol is synthesized mainly in liver, adrenal cortex, intestine, testes and skin.
In liver, cholesterol is converted to cholic acid which on combination with glycine and faurius forms bile acids.
Chlosterol is transported in blood in association with lipoprotein high blood cholesterol level is associated with coronary heart disease and Arteriosclerosis.
Blood-
Blood is connective tissue which circulates in a closed system of vessels and consist of solid elements known as cells which includes red cells, white cells and platelets suspended in a liquid medium the plasma.

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY-

Sciology is the the study of human society and its dynamics. The main focus of the science of sociology is the Group and not the individual. Sociology is the youngest branch of the Social Sciences. The science of social phenomena, subject to natural invariable laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation. The use of “ positive” method for sociology as is done in Natural Sciences like physics since he belived that the scientific study of Sociology was of vital importance for the improvement of society.
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY-
It is the study of or science of humen society. Sociology as a science which interprets the social behavior with the aim of arriving at a causal explanation of humen behavior.